https://rac.soore.ac.ir/ Industrial Arts en daily 1 Fri, 20 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0330 Fri, 20 Feb 2026 00:00:00 +0330 https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_734745.html This study presents a comprehensive comparative analysis of the representation of the Div—a supernatural being commonly translated as a demon—in the visual arts of Iran and Japan, focusing specifically on Persian miniature painting of the Timurid period and the Ukiyo-e paintings of the Utagawa school. The figure of the Div or oni, across mythologies and cultural traditions, embodies humanity’s confrontation with the unknown, the dualities of good and evil, and the psychological projection of chaos and fear. In both Iranian and Japanese traditions, the visual form of this creature provides profound insight into the collective imagination, moral symbolism, and cosmological order that define each civilization’s worldview. Methodologically, the research adopts a comparative approach grounded in structuralist theory, using both documentary and observational methods to analyze selected visual samples. These include miniatures from the Shahnameh of Muhammad Juki (15th century, Timurid Herat) and woodblock prints from the Utagawa school (18th–19th centuries Edo Japan). Through systematic comparison of visual elements—such as composition, chromatic schemes, spatial construction, iconographic detail, and anatomical stylization—alongside the mythological and religious symbolism underlying each tradition, the study aims to identify the formal and conceptual correspondences and divergences in the representation of supernatural beings. The findings reveal that in Timurid miniature painting, the Div is consistently portrayed as an embodiment of absolute evil and spiritual corruption. Its visual characteristics—grotesque facial features, exaggerated musculature, hybrid human-animal anatomy, and monstrous scale—serve to externalize moral and metaphysical conflict within the Persian cosmological order, especially within the Zoroastrian dualism between Ahura Mazda (light and order) and Ahriman (darkness and chaos). The Div, as portrayed in epics like Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, symbolizes rebellion against divine order and the human struggle for moral and spiritual victory. The choice of form and color—often employing unnatural tones such as pale white or earth brown—functions as a metaphor for otherworldliness and corruption, further emphasizing the dichotomy between the divine hero and the demonic adversary. In contrast, within the Utagawa school’s Japanese context, demons—most notably oni and yōkai—are represented as multifaceted entities existing within the continuum of the sacred and profane. Influenced by the syncretism of Shinto animism and Buddhist cosmology, these beings do not always signify absolute evil but can function as protectors, moral enforcers, or embodiments of karmic retribution. In the works of artists such as Utagawa Kuniyoshi and Utagawa Yoshitsuya, the oni appears in diverse iconographic forms: sometimes terrifying and violent, at other times grotesque yet humorous, reflecting the complex Japanese view of the supernatural as an integrated part of nature rather than an opposing metaphysical realm. The use of vivid colors—especially red and blue—along with expressive lines and exaggerated gestures, imbues these figures with dynamic emotional energy and theatrical vitality, characteristic of Edo-period visual culture. The comparative analysis demonstrates that while both traditions conceptualize demons as forces opposing cosmic or moral order, their cultural interpretations diverge profoundly. In Persian art, the Div is a distinctly negative figure situated within a moral binary grounded in Zoroastrian and later Islamic ethics. Its visual form reflects an eschatological vision in which good must triumph over evil through divine heroism. Conversely, Japanese art situates the oni within a cyclical, naturalistic worldview, where disorder and suffering are inherent aspects of existence, subject to transformation rather than annihilation. This fundamental philosophical divergence manifests visually through distinct aesthetic strategies: the Persian miniature emphasizes narrative clarity, hieratic composition, and symbolic color harmony, while the Japanese print embraces asymmetry, movement, and emotional expressivity. Furthermore, the study situates these differences within a broader historical and intercultural framework. Despite the geographic distance between Iran and Japan, artistic and philosophical exchanges along the Silk Road facilitated indirect transmission of visual motifs and symbolic archetypes. The diffusion of Buddhist art—rooted partly in Iranian Manichaean and Sasanian traditions—provided a conduit through which Persian notions of the demonic and sacred were reinterpreted in East Asia. The continuity of certain stylistic features, such as flattened perspective, ornamental detail, and narrative sequencing, suggests shared visual conventions within the larger domain of “Eastern pictorial logic,” even as each culture adapted these forms to its own religious and moral paradigms. Ultimately, this research underscores the crucial role of cultural and religious contexts in shaping artistic representation. The Div and oni, though analogous as supernatural antagonists, reveal how differing cosmologies—monotheistic dualism versus animistic polytheism—generate distinct modes of visual and symbolic expression. Through comparative iconological analysis, this study not only illuminates the specific aesthetic vocabularies of Timurid Iran and Edo Japan but also contributes to broader discussions on how art encodes the metaphysical anxieties and ethical structures of civilizations. In conclusion, the study affirms that the portrayal of demons in Persian and Japanese art transcends mere ornamentation or mythological narrative; it functions as a visual discourse on morality, power, and the human condition. The Div and oni each embody the struggle between chaos and order, yet their divergent depictions testify to fundamentally different cultural attitudes toward evil and transcendence. The Persian miniature transforms the demonic into a moral allegory of purification through struggle, while Japanese Ukiyo-e transforms it into a reflection of life’s impermanence and the coexistence of opposites. This comparative perspective deepens the understanding of how visual cultures translate metaphysical beliefs into aesthetic form, revealing the enduring power of art to articulate the unseen dimensions of the human psyche. https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_734746.html I In the second half of the Qajar period, Iranian art underwent profound transformations shaped largely by expanding political and cultural interactions with the West. These encounters facilitated the gradual infusion of European visual concepts into established Iranian artistic traditions—a process widely described in scholarly literature as farangisāzi (Europeanization). This phenomenon encompassed the adoption of realism, perspectival depth, naturalistic portraiture, and a range of Western compositional models. Among the artistic media most visibly impacted by these changes were lacquer objects, particularly qalamdāns (pen-boxes), which served as important vehicles for experimentation and stylistic innovation. Within this milieu, artworks attributed to Aqa Najaf ‘Ali Isfahani represent an outstanding example of the creative synthesis between Persian manuscript painting and European visual aesthetics. His oeuvre reflects not only the cultural and aesthetic dynamism of the Qajar period but also the social and gendered structures of the Naseri era, especially the position of women within the private domestic sphere (andaruni). Against this backdrop, the present study provides a structural and iconographic analysis of a lacquered pen-box attributed to Aqa Najaf ‘Ali, with the aim of identifying its visual and compositional features and interpreting the representation of women, natural motifs, and the semantic relationships that bind them. The research employs a qualitative, descriptive–analytical method grounded in library sources, textual note-taking, and visual examination. High-resolution images of the object were obtained from the Chiswick Auctions website. The case study focuses on a lacquered pen-box (Lot 34), sold for £1,875, attributed to Aqa Najaf ‘Ali. Analytical attention is directed toward all of the pen-box’s pictorial surfaces to identify stylistic patterns, visual motifs, and symbolic structures. The study also investigates the integration of Persian miniature conventions with European-inspired visual components, seeking to elucidate how the artwork reflects the cultural, social, gendered, and aesthetic ideas of the Qajar period. The upper surface of the pen-box features a multi-panel composition framed within gilded arabesque cartouches, which impart both structural harmony and a fusion between Iranian and European pictorial sensibilities. The female figures depicted in these panels appear in soft, semi-nude, and occasionally seductive postures, collectively evoking an atmosphere of intimacy reminiscent of private domestic gatherings. This imagery echoes the Westernizing tendencies of the Qajar court as well as the social conditions of the Naseri period, when women’s identities were primarily associated with beauty, domesticity, and inner-household sociability rather than public engagement. Landscape elements further underscore the hybrid visual language of the object. The presence of perspectival recession, elongated tree forms, mist-filled skies, and open horizons reveals the influence of European Baroque and Romantic landscape conventions, while mountains, floral clusters, and decorative foliage maintain continuity with Persian aesthetic traditions. The female figures—portrayed full-face or in three-quarter profile, adorned with elaborate hairstyles, semi-European garments, and expressive gazes—embody a transition from passive ornamental motifs to more conscious and self-referential subjects. Their representations signal a broader cultural shift in the conceptualization of feminine identity during the Naseri era. Nature operates not merely as ornament but as a symbolic partner within the composition. Flowers serve as mediating motifs that move beyond the traditional metaphor of “woman as flower,” and birds frequently interact directly with female figures, symbolizing imagination, emotional freedom, and the aspiration to transcend the confines of the andaruni. These motifs negotiate the boundary between tradition and modernity, enabling an expanded interpretation of female subjectivity in Qajar visual culture. By contrast, the underside of the pen-box depicts a masculine-coded realm composed of hunting and travel scenes—activities emblematic of aristocratic leisure and male public agency. The visual juxtaposition of female/domestic versus male/public spheres mirrors the gendered organization of Naseri society. Strong chromatic contrasts, particularly the juxtaposition of vivid reds, blues, and golds against dark lacquered grounds, heighten the decorative opulence of the object and contribute to its atmospheric richness. Taken as a whole, the pen-box emerges as a valuable visual document of its time. It embodies artistic hybridity, sociocultural negotiation, and the shifting boundaries of gender and identity in Qajar Iran. The analysis of this lacquered pen-box demonstrates that the representation of women provides critical insight into the evolving cultural and gender dynamics of the Qajar period, as well as into the complex interaction between traditional Persian visual conventions and European artistic influences. During the Naseri era, women’s social roles were largely confined to domestic spaces, a condition that shaped their artistic representation. Yet Aqa Najaf ‘Ali depicts women not as passive decorative elements but as active cultural agents engaged—visually and symbolically—in redefining their identity. The female figures, portrayed with dynamic poses, semi-European attire, modern stylistic features, and meaningful inward or outward gazes, reveal a shift from static caricatures toward a more nuanced female subjectivity—one simultaneously aware of its domestic constraints and oriented toward broader social possibilities. Scenes of female sociability, intimate dialogues, and symbolic interactions with nature articulate themes of individuality, consciousness, and aspiration. Birds and flowers, in particular, act as metaphors for freedom, imagination, and emotional expression. Aqa Najaf ‘Ali’s integration of multi-panel structures, gilded arabesques, perspectival depth, atmospheric landscapes, and chiaroscuro demonstrates a sophisticated engagement with European styles—especially Baroque and Romantic painting—while remaining rooted in Persian aesthetic principles. This synthesis produces a layered representation of the Qajar woman that is both reflective of its historical context and indicative of emerging cultural transformations. Thus, the pen-box operates not merely as a decorative object but as a visual archive that documents the sociocultural, aesthetic, and gendered transitions of the nineteenth century. It testifies to the artist’s capacity to navigate between tradition and modernity, East and West, and public and private spheres, offering a reimagined vision of female identity within the evolving cultural landscape of Qajar Iran. https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_734748.html The global fashion industry is undergoing a significant paradigm shift, marked by a profound resurgence of interest in vintage clothing. This trend transcends mere nostalgia, constituting a deliberate cultural and economic movement towards the acquisition, valorisation, and integration of authentic garments from previous decades. It is propelled by a powerful confluence of factors: escalating environmental consciousness regarding the detrimental impacts of fast fashion; economic rationales favouring durability and timeless value over disposability; and a deep-seated aesthetic appeal centred on individuality and historical narrative. While this phenomenon enjoys widespread adoption, its articulation within distinct cultural and religious contexts remains an underexplored area of academic inquiry. A particularly compelling yet neglected research avenue is the potential for vintage fashion philosophy to inform and enrich contemporary attire design for Muslim women. This can be achieved not through replication, but through the critical reinterpretation and creative adaptation of historical visual symbols from non-Western sartorial traditions. The vestimentary culture of Iran’s Qajar era (1789–1925) offers a fertile repository of such symbols. Consequently, this research posits a necessity to investigate how these historical elements can be systematically analysed and transformed to synthesise cultural identity, religious values, and sustainable fashion principles for a modern demographic.This study situates itself at the interdisciplinary intersection of cultural heritage studies, religious sartorial codes, and sustainable design theory. It employs analytical frameworks from cultural semiotics to deconstruct the visual language embedded within Qajar women's attire. The primary objective is to demonstrate the practical applicability of these reinterpreted symbols in conceptualising vintage-inspired garments that resonate with the aesthetic, ethical, and modesty requirements of modern Muslim women. The central research question guiding this inquiry is: Which specific visual symbols from Qajar-era women's clothing can be suitably reinterpreted and integrated into the design of vintage-style garments that align with the requirements of modesty (hijab) and the identity narratives of contemporary Muslim women?To address this question with methodological rigour, a qualitative research methodology was adopted, structured into two sequential phases. The initial phase involved extensive archival and documentary analysis of primary and secondary historical sources. This included a meticulous examination of Qajar-era paintings, portrait photography, travelogues, and extant textile collections. The objective was to compile a systematic inventory of visual symbols, garment typologies, fabrics, colour palettes, and embellishment techniques definitive of Qajar women's fashion. This historical corpus formed the foundation for all subsequent analytical and design-oriented work. The second phase utilised the Delphi technique, a structured communication method designed to consolidate expert opinion. Based on the historical inventory, a detailed questionnaire comprising 64 items was developed and distributed to a purposively selected panel of twenty experts in fashion history, Iranian art, Islamic clothing design, and cultural studies. The questionnaire and emerging findings were evaluated over three iterative rounds, enabling the progressive refinement and consensus-based ranking of the identified symbols and their potential applications.The findings from this iterative process yielded significant results. A strong expert consensus identified 42 distinct visual symbols from Qajar-era clothing as possessing high applicability for contemporary design. These validated symbols were systematically categorised across key dimensions of garment construction and decoration. The category of Traditional Fabrics confirmed the enduring significance of specific materials. Luxurious fabrics such as silk brocade (terme), velvet (makhmel), and high-quality woven cottons were highlighted for their aesthetic and tactile qualities, historical authenticity, potential for sustainable sourcing, and inherent durability. These materials align with the principles of slow fashion, offering an antithesis to the synthetic textiles prevalent in fast fashion.The category of Embellishments and Artisanal Techniques revealed a rich array of decorative elements identified as primary carriers of cultural meaning. These included intricate "Zardozi" (metallic thread embroidery), delicate beading using pearls and sequins, corrugated gold beads (chelleh), traditional floral motifs (gol-o bolbol), and the iconic paisley (BotehJegheh). Specific styles of lace insertion (dantelle) and decorative ribbon work were also noted. These techniques represent a heritage of craftsmanship that emphasises detail, longevity, and symbolic communication. Their modern reinterpretation allows for the embedding of cultural narratives into garment design, moving beyond generic ornamentation to create pieces with historical resonance.Finally, the category of Garment Silhouettes and Components identified key items that provide adaptable, modesty-aligned templates for modern design. Foundational elements such as the tailored tunic (Pirahan), wide-legged trousers (Shalvar), and the overarching outer garment (Chador) offer a versatile lexicon of forms. Their structural lines, intelligent use of volume, and sophisticated principles of layering provide a sartorial foundation conducive to contemporary reinterpretation. These silhouettes, by their historical nature, ensure coverage, comfort, and a dignified flow of fabric, thereby offering inherent solutions for modest dressing that can be refined without sacrificing elegance or historical reference.In conclusion, this study argues that the strategic, informed incorporation of Qajar-era visual symbols whether through traditional fabrics, translated embellishment techniques, or adapted historic silhouettes holds considerable promise. This methodology facilitates the creation of vintage-style clothing that authentically adheres to Islamic dress codes, which emphasise modesty through adequate coverage, loose-fitting forms, and a dignified aesthetic. Furthermore, this design philosophy consciously transcends superficial appropriation. It actively strengthens cultural-historical identity by creating a tangible, wearable link to a richly layered heritage, fostering a sense of continuity and pride.Critically, this approach aligns robustly with the environmental and ethical ethos of sustainability. By championing durable materials, artisanal quality, and timeless designs that defy the disposable cycles of fast fashion, it promotes waste reduction and encourages ethical consumption. Thus, this research demonstrates that the thoughtful fusion of Qajar-era symbolism with vintage design principles offers a viable, sophisticated, and culturally resonant strategy for advancing a progressive fashion paradigm. This paradigm is simultaneously heritage-grounded, religiously aligned, aesthetically nuanced, and sustainable, thereby meeting the complex sartorial, identity, and ethical needs of Muslim women in the contemporary world. It posits that the future of meaningful fashion may be found not solely in relentless novelty, but in the intelligent dialogue between a purposeful present and a richly symbolic past. https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_734755.html New painting is one of the currents of contemporary Iranian art in which artists have tried to look to the past while harmonizing their works with new developments in terms of both content and form. Mahmoud Farshchian, as one of the most prominent representatives of this current, was able to achieve a personal style in his work. In most of his works, the human image plays a central role. Given that no comprehensive research has been conducted on Farshchian's view of humans, the present study aims to study the evolution of the human image in the artist's paintings with respect to Erwin Panofsky's iconographic approach. The main question of the research is what has been the process of changing the representation of the human image in Farshchian's paintings. The statistical population of this research is those works of Farshchian that contain human figures, and 10 paintings from the statistical population were purposefully selected as the sample size. The method of collecting information is library, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. The findings of the research indicate that the early paintings, which belong to his youth, mostly show authentic Iranian painting patterns in drawing the human face, including moles and arched eyebrows, bud lips, and drooping eyes. While in the works from the final decades of the artist's career, human figures are depicted with greater realism, more precise details, and emotional expressions. Imagination and the intertwining of the figure with space are other characteristics of Farshchian's works in the latter part of his career. Humans have always been one of the most common subjects in the works of Iranian painters. Mahmoud Farshchian fundamentally changed Iranian painting with his new style and achieved a personal style. The content of his works arose from the depths of his being and was formed according to his beliefs, which shows his attitude towards humans and other phenomena of existence. The element of imagination in the artist's works is considered one of the most important pillars, which is one of the most difficult philosophical topics. Understanding this faculty is considered one of the keys to understanding the beauty in his artistic works. On the other hand, Farshchian's new perspective on the characters in his paintings has not been looked at in a precise and meticulous way. In other words, the scientific gap in previous research is the lack of a comprehensive and complete analysis of the human image in this artist's works. This research was based on the fundamental question of how the image of man in Farshchian's paintings evolved in relation to its historical world. The aim of this research was to understand the evolution of the image of man in his paintings in relation to its historical world. This research was compiled in a descriptive-analytical manner, and it is worth noting that all analyses are carried out in five stages, considering the artist's historical world, including information related to the work, the thematic group of the painting, reading the painting, hidden concepts in the work, and the final stage of studying and analyzing the image of man in the paintings. The data collection method was also library and documentary, while the sample population of this research is those works of Farshchian that contain human images, and ten paintings from his collection were selected for the sample size. Finally, we see that over time, the light and shadow that enters his work makes the volume more prominent and makes the form appear more realistic. The faces are drawn with more detail and the figures are more elongated in terms of body, giving them a sense of liberation and freedom. The imaginative space added in his latest works sometimes swallows the figure and we witness the figure's body becoming one with the space. The importance of Farshchian's role in contemporary Iranian painting is revealed when we understand that when European culture penetrated the borders of Iran at the end of the Safavid period, it caused the decline of Iranian painting, but she devoted herself to its revival and was able to revive it with a new style. In terms of the difference that her new painting creates compared to the old, we witness the coloring that is seen in multiple layers, which is completely opposite to the surfaces that were executed in flat form in the past. In his works, texture and volume are clearly visible, and he is more faithful to nature and anatomy than in the past. He even works differently in terms of lighting, introducing localized lighting into his paintings. While in the works of ancient painters, light was widely diffused. In Iranian painting, in most cases, man, who himself has the specific external characteristics of painting, was one of the elements of the story, which was sometimes mentioned as the main theme and subject of the story. Mahmoud Farshchian's paintings are also examples in visual arts that benefit from the presence of this role in a new way. In a large number of his works, of which we will encounter and examine a few examples in this thesis, he depicts man in the form of a prophet, a guide, a wise old man, or even in the form of a beautiful woman. New painting is one of the currents of contemporary Iranian art in which artists have tried to look to the past while harmonizing their works with new developments in terms of both content and form. Mahmoud Farshchian, as one of the most prominent representatives of this current, was able to achieve a personal style in his work. In most of his works, the human image plays a central role. Given that no comprehensive research has been conducted on Farshchian's view of humans, the present study aims to study the evolution of the human image in the artist's paintings with respect to Erwin Panofsky's iconographic approach. The main question of the research is what has been the process of changing the representation of the human image in Farshchian's paintings. The statistical population of this research is those works of Farshchian that contain human figures, and 10 paintings from the statistical population were purposefully selected as the sample size. The method of collecting information is library, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. The findings of the research indicate that the early paintings, which belong to his youth, mostly show authentic Iranian painting patterns in drawing the human face, including moles and arched eyebrows, bud lips, and drooping eyes. While in the works from the final decades of the artist's career, human figures are depicted with greater realism, more precise details, and emotional expressions. Imagination and the intertwining of the figure with space are other characteristics of Farshchian's works in the latter part of his career. Humans have always been one of the most common subjects in the works of Iranian painters. Mahmoud Farshchian fundamentally changed Iranian painting with his new style and achieved a personal style. The content of his works arose from the depths of his being and was formed according to his beliefs, which shows his attitude towards humans and other phenomena of existence. The element of imagination in the artist's works is considered one of the most important pillars, which is one of the most difficult philosophical topics. Understanding this faculty is considered one of the keys to understanding the beauty in his artistic works. On the other hand, Farshchian's new perspective on the characters in his paintings has not been looked at in a precise and meticulous way. In other words, the scientific gap in previous research is the lack of a comprehensive and complete analysis of the human image in this artist's works. This research was based on the fundamental question of how the image of man in Farshchian's paintings evolved in relation to its historical world. The aim of this research was to understand the evolution of the image of man in his paintings in relation to its historical world. This research was compiled in a descriptive-analytical manner, and it is worth noting that all analyses are carried out in five stages, considering the artist's historical world, including information related to the work, the thematic group of the painting, reading the painting, hidden concepts in the work, and the final stage of studying and analyzing the image of man in the paintings. The data collection method was also library and documentary, while the sample population of this research is those works of Farshchian that contain human images, and ten paintings from his collection were selected for the sample size. Finally, we see that over time, the light and shadow that enters his work makes the volume more prominent and makes the form appear more realistic. The faces are drawn with more detail and the figures are more elongated in terms of body, giving them a sense of liberation and freedom. The imaginative space added in his latest works sometimes swallows the figure and we witness the figure's body becoming one with the space. The importance of Farshchian's role in contemporary Iranian painting is revealed when we understand that when European culture penetrated the borders of Iran at the end of the Safavid period, it caused the decline of Iranian painting, but she devoted herself to its revival and was able to revive it with a new style. In terms of the difference that her new painting creates compared to the old, we witness the coloring that is seen in multiple layers, which is completely opposite to the surfaces that were executed in flat form in the past. In his works, texture and volume are clearly visible, and he is more faithful to nature and anatomy than in the past. He even works differently in terms of lighting, introducing localized lighting into his paintings. While in the works of ancient painters, light was widely diffused. In Iranian painting, in most cases, man, who himself has the specific external characteristics of painting, was one of the elements of the story, which was sometimes mentioned as the main theme and subject of the story. Mahmoud Farshchian's paintings are also examples in visual arts that benefit from the presence of this role in a new way. In a large number of his works, of which we will encounter and examine a few examples in this thesis, he depicts man in the form of a prophet, a guide, a wise old man, or even in the form of a beautiful woman. https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_734756.html Kashan has long been recognized as one of the most distinguished centers of pottery production throughout different historical periods, particularly during the Islamic era. Between the 6th and 8th centuries AH (12th to 14th centuries CE), this city emerged as a leading hub of pottery innovation, producing vessels of remarkable aesthetic and technical sophistication. The artisans of Kashan not only experimented with diverse forms and shapes but also mastered a wide array of decorative techniques that they applied with great precision and delicacy. Their approach to ornamentation demonstrated a strong harmony between form, decorative method, and painted motifs. Among the recurring decorative elements employed in Kashan pottery, the motif of the fish occupies a prominent position, suggesting its symbolic and cultural significance within the artistic imagination of the city’s craftsmen and its broader community of patrons and viewers. The frequent appearance of fish motifs on Kashan pottery reflects both an aesthetic preference and an enduring cultural symbolism. Fish, as a motif, were adapted into a variety of forms and arrangements that reveal the creativity of Kashan’s artisans. These variations were not random, but rather shaped by several factors, most notably the form of the pottery itself and the specific decorative techniques employed. The present study, based on a descriptive-analytical method, draws on library sources, digital archives, and first-hand observation of museum collections. The analytical approach is informed by Gestalt principles, considering the pottery vessel as a visual whole and examining the placement of the fish motif in relation to the overall surface structure. Its primary objective is to analyze the relationship between pottery form and decorative technique, on the one hand, and the modes of representation of the fish motif, on the other. By examining this relationship, the study seeks to answer the central question: How did the form and decorative techniques of Kashan pottery influence the visual rendering of the fish motif?Findings indicate that the form of the pottery plays a decisive role in determining the available pictorial field and, consequently, the arrangement of decorative motifs. Compared to tiles, pottery vessels provide a more varied and dynamic canvas for ornamentation, owing to the diversity of their shapes. Bowls and dishes, with their circular and cornerless surfaces, offered ample opportunities for radial, rotational, centripetal compositions featuring fish within pond-like settings. By contrast, elongated and cylindrical pottery vessels favored linear or horizontal arrangements of fish, reflecting the constraints and possibilities of their form. Tiles present a different case: the fish motif appears only on tiles with cross-shaped or star-shaped designs. The star-shaped tiles are predominantly octagonal, with depictions of small ponds with fish inside located in their lower corners. Due to spatial limitations, these ponds typically contained only one fish, usually rendered in full. In one rare example of a heptagonal tile, however, the expanded space allowed for the representation of up to four complete fish figures within the pond. Interestingly, in most instances, the fish motif functions as a subsidiary decorative element, accompanying other motifs. Yet, in one unique case, the fish motif emerges as the principal ornament, underscoring its versatility and symbolic resonance.               Beyond form, the decorative technique also exerted considerable influence on the rendering of the fish motif. On underglaze-painted pottery, fish are typically depicted in a flat manner, with limited details, emphasizing simplicity and stylistic economy rather than technical limitations. By contrast, overglaze-painted pieces—particularly those executed in lusterware—display fish motifs in linear style with added details, highlighting ornamentation across the fish figure. Yet the contrast between simplified underglaze motifs and elaborate overglaze renderings should not be understood solely in technical terms. Instead, it reflects conscious artistic choices and differing aesthetic priorities associated with each medium.         Lusterware, in particular, provided Kashan artists with exceptional opportunities for experimentation. The brilliance and visual appeal of luster painting encouraged artists to adopt fish motifs with greater detail, variety, and compositional complexity.      In some cases, overglaze techniques were even combined with underglaze painting, resulting in striking effects: fish motifs appeared both in flat blue or turquoise tones (underglaze) and in linear designs (luster), creating multi-layered visual dynamics. On lajvardina pottery, by contrast, fish motifs could appear both flat and linear, yet generally remained simplified and devoid of intricate details. This suggests that aesthetic choices were often guided less by technical capacity and more by the symbolic and decorative function envisioned by the artist.     The broader significance of this research lies in its contribution to the understanding of Kashan pottery as integrated works of art, in which form of pottery, technique, and motif operate in concert. By situating the fish motif within the interplay of pottery form and decorative method, the study underscores the importance of conscious artistic decision-making in the Islamic pottery tradition of Kashan. For contemporary potters, the findings highlight the value of engaging with traditional models in a critical and creative manner. Awareness of how form and technique influence the possibilities of ornamentation enables modern artists to produce works that, visual unity and structural coherence, while also drawing inspiration from the rich heritage of past craftsmanship.             In conclusion, the study demonstrates that the fish motif in Kashan pottery was not merely a decorative repetition, but a dynamic and adaptive element responsive to the formal and technical parameters of pottery production. The form of the pottery determined the spatial logic of motif placement as an integrated visual whole, while decorative technique influenced stylistic choices and levels of detail. The fish motif thus embodies both continuity and innovation within Kashan’s pottery tradition, offering insight into the creative processes of its artisans. Ultimately, this research reaffirms the enduring cultural and artistic significance of Kashan pottery and provides a framework for further explorations into the interrelation of form, technique, and motif in Islamic art. https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_734758.html Water has long symbolized purity and renewal, and throughout the history of civilizations, bathhouses were more than places for hygiene they were cultural institutions, spaces of interaction, ritual, and symbolic expression. In Iran, particularly during the Safavid and Qajar periods, traditional bathhouses reflected social and cultural identities through their architecture, ornamentation, and decorative imagery. Among these, the historical bathhouses of Kerman Ganjali Khan, Vakil, and Ebrahim Khan stand out as exemplary cases where paintings, tileworks, and motifs functioned not only as embellishments but also as carriers of collective beliefs, values, and identities. This study applies a semiotic approach to these bathhouses in order to reveal how their visual language embodies cultural meanings and communicates social messages. The analysis demonstrates that these motifs, ranging from human figures and animals to plants and mythical beings, were carefully selected and arranged to articulate a worldview grounded in Iranian-Islamic traditions. By uncovering the layers of meaning embedded in these decorations, this research highlights the baths’ roles as symbolic texts that preserve and transmit cultural memory. Semiotics provides the theoretical lens for this investigation, recognizing humans as meaning-making beings who rely on signs to convey abstract concepts. Signs do not inherently carry meaning but acquire it through interpretation within cultural contexts. Drawing on Saussure’s dyadic model of signifier and signified, as well as Peirce’s triadic model that emphasizes the interpretant, this study examines how bathhouse imagery functioned simultaneously as signs and symbols. Symbols in particular extend beyond representation, encapsulating historical, social, and cultural associations. Thus, decorative elements such as lions are not merely depictions of animals but markers of authority, nobility, and spiritual protection. In this way, the bathhouses of Kerman emerge as semiotic systems in which visual forms encode a complex network of ideas, beliefs, and practices. Methodologically, the research employs a qualitative, descriptive–analytical design, combining library sources with fieldwork, photography, and direct observation. Across the three bathhouses, a total of 48 motifs were systematically analyzed using both Saussurean and Peircean frameworks. This dual model allowed for an exploration of the interplay between form, meaning, and interpretation, illuminating how decorative programs constructed a symbolic environment that went beyond aesthetic pleasure. The findings reveal that the motifs of Kerman’s bathhouses constitute a multilayered visual narrative that integrates cultural, social, and religious values. Animal imagery plays a central role, encompassing both real and mythical creatures. Lions, leopards, and wolves represent power, courage, and the struggle against threats, while mythological dragons dramatize the tension between good and evil. These figures resonate with Iran’s literary and epic traditions, including Shahnameh-inspired scenes, which celebrate heroism, bravery, and national identity. At the same time, gentler animals such as ducks, camels, goats, deer, turtles, and rabbits symbolize fertility, patience, harmony with nature, and the rhythms of daily life, reflecting the close relationship between humans and their natural and economic environments. Their depiction alongside human figures integrates ecological and cultural dimensions into a unified symbolic order. Plant motifs further enrich the visual language of the baths. Cypress trees, pomegranates, pears, irises, and roses convey ideas of resilience, fertility, beauty, purity, and spirituality. These motifs not only reflect an aesthetic appreciation for the natural world but also encode ethical and religious values associated with life, renewal, and continuity. In the Ibrahim Khan Bath in particular, floral decorations carry philosophical and moral undertones while promoting ecological awareness and a sustainable vision of human–nature relations. The symmetry and balance in these compositions express harmony and order, creating an immersive environment where artistic beauty intertwines with cultural meaning. Equally significant are human representations, which articulate aspects of social identity, ritual, and collective memory. Scenes of wrestling, heroic figures, and strongmen underscore values of courage, honor, and community, while depictions of bath attendants highlight rituals of cleanliness, purification, and care for the body as expressions of cultural values around health. Women are portrayed in diverse roles, sometimes in social and romantic contexts, sometimes as musicians or participants in cultural life. These images embody social traditions, creativity, and participation, while also reflecting ideas of love, family, and emotional life. Romantic encounters and courtship scenes, for instance, not only add aesthetic charm but also encode narratives of maturity, human relationships, and the intersection of art with daily existence. Collectively, these human motifs underscore the role of bathhouses as social and symbolic spaces where individual and communal identities were negotiated and displayed. What emerges from this semiotic reading is a recognition that bathhouse imagery was never arbitrary or merely ornamental. Instead, it functioned as a symbolic system that conveyed messages about social order, ethical norms, cultural identity, and human experience. The repetition of lions across the three baths, for example, demonstrates the centrality of authority and protection in the social imagination of the period, while the prevalence of floral motifs reaffirms values of purity and renewal. Similarly, mythological and literary references tie the baths to broader cultural narratives, connecting daily life to epic traditions and reinforcing a sense of national and religious identity. Beyond their historical context, these findings carry contemporary significance. Understanding the semiotic richness of Kerman’s bathhouses provides insight into Iranian-Islamic visual identity and cultural heritage, offering tools for both preservation and revitalization. As heritage sites, these bathhouses serve not only as monuments of architectural and artistic achievement but also as visual archives that record the beliefs, values, and practices of past societies. Recognizing and interpreting their symbolic dimensions contributes to cultural tourism, public education, and the creative integration of traditional visual languages into modern architectural design. By bridging past and present, such analysis strengthens cultural identity while fostering appreciation of the continuity and dynamism of Iranian artistic traditions. In conclusion, the bathhouses of Kerman, through their intricate decorative programs, exemplify how functional spaces can be transformed into symbolic landscapes that embody social and cultural meaning. Their paintings and tileworks form a sophisticated semiotic system where humans, animals, plants, and mythical beings interweave to narrate stories of life, belief, and identity. This study demonstrates that semiotic analysis can reveal the depth and richness of these spaces, showing how they extend beyond hygiene and architecture to become living texts of cultural heritage. Revisiting and analyzing these monuments not only deepens our understanding of historical societies but also opens pathways for reinterpreting and reapplying their visual languages in contemporary contexts. Ultimately, the Kerman bathhouses are not relics of the past but enduring symbols of cultural creativity, resilience, and identity, reminding us that meaning and beauty can be inscribed into even the most everyday of spaces. https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_735427.html The motif of the lotus flower is manifested across various artistic contexts of the Achaemenid period, notably in stone reliefs and glass artifacts. The main objective of this study is to uncover the underlying unity of thought and conceptual coherence in the representation of this symbol within both formal and ritual art on the one hand, and utilitarian and decorative art on the other. The research seeks to answer the fundamental question: How is the symbolic role of the lotus flower reflected in the reliefs and glassworks of the Achaemenid era? Using a descriptive–analytical method and drawing upon documentary, field, and online sources, representative examples of artworks were examined. The findings reveal that the lotus flower, in both artistic domains, functions beyond mere ornamentation. In the reliefs, its repetitive order and structural symmetry convey notions of cosmic harmony, stability, and the legitimacy of imperial authority. Conversely, in glassware, the material’s transparency and luminosity emphasize themes of light, purity, and spiritual elevation. This semantic correspondence between contrasting media—the solidity of stone versus the delicacy of glass—attests to a unified symbolic and intellectual framework in Achaemenid art, reflecting the interconnection between political power, religious belief, and aesthetic expression. Overall, the study demonstrates that the lotus flower served as a mediatory symbol between the terrestrial and the divine realms, reinforcing an underlying conceptual unity amid the artistic diversity of the empire.The motif of the lotus flower is manifested across various artistic contexts of the Achaemenid period, notably in stone reliefs and glass artifacts. The main objective of this study is to uncover the underlying unity of thought and conceptual coherence in the representation of this symbol within both formal and ritual art on the one hand, and utilitarian and decorative art on the other. The research seeks to answer the fundamental question: How is the symbolic role of the lotus flower reflected in the reliefs and glassworks of the Achaemenid era? Using a descriptive–analytical method and drawing upon documentary, field, and online sources, representative examples of artworks were examined. The findings reveal that the lotus flower, in both artistic domains, functions beyond mere ornamentation. In the reliefs, its repetitive order and structural symmetry convey notions of cosmic harmony, stability, and the legitimacy of imperial authority. Conversely, in glassware, the material’s transparency and luminosity emphasize themes of light, purity, and spiritual elevation. This semantic correspondence between contrasting media—the solidity of stone versus the delicacy of glass—attests to a unified symbolic and intellectual framework in Achaemenid art, reflecting the interconnection between political power, religious belief, and aesthetic expression. Overall, the study demonstrates that the lotus flower served as a mediatory symbol between the terrestrial and the divine realms, reinforcing an underlying conceptual unity amid the artistic diversity of the empire.The motif of the lotus flower is manifested across various artistic contexts of the Achaemenid period, notably in stone reliefs and glass artifacts. The main objective of this study is to uncover the underlying unity of thought and conceptual coherence in the representation of this symbol within both formal and ritual art on the one hand, and utilitarian and decorative art on the other. The research seeks to answer the fundamental question: How is the symbolic role of the lotus flower reflected in the reliefs and glassworks of the Achaemenid era? Using a descriptive–analytical method and drawing upon documentary, field, and online sources, representative examples of artworks were examined. The findings reveal that the lotus flower, in both artistic domains, functions beyond mere ornamentation. In the reliefs, its repetitive order and structural symmetry convey notions of cosmic harmony, stability, and the legitimacy of imperial authority. Conversely, in glassware, the material’s transparency and luminosity emphasize themes of light, purity, and spiritual elevation. This semantic correspondence between contrasting media—the solidity of stone versus the delicacy of glass—attests to a unified symbolic and intellectual framework in Achaemenid art, reflecting the interconnection between political power, religious belief, and aesthetic expression. Overall, the study demonstrates that the lotus flower served as a mediatory symbol between the terrestrial and the divine realms, reinforcing an underlying conceptual unity amid the artistic diversity of the empire.The motif of the lotus flower is manifested across various artistic contexts of the Achaemenid period, notably in stone reliefs and glass artifacts. The main objective of this study is to uncover the underlying unity of thought and conceptual coherence in the representation of this symbol within both formal and ritual art on the one hand, and utilitarian and decorative art on the other. The research seeks to answer the fundamental question: How is the symbolic role of the lotus flower reflected in the reliefs and glassworks of the Achaemenid era? Using a descriptive–analytical method and drawing upon documentary, field, and online sources, representative examples of artworks were examined. The findings reveal that the lotus flower, in both artistic domains, functions beyond mere ornamentation. In the reliefs, its repetitive order and structural symmetry convey notions of cosmic harmony, stability, and the legitimacy of imperial authority. Conversely, in glassware, the material’s transparency and luminosity emphasize themes of light, purity, and spiritual elevation. This semantic correspondence between contrasting media—the solidity of stone versus the delicacy of glass—attests to a unified symbolic and intellectual framework in Achaemenid art, reflecting the interconnection between political power, religious belief, and aesthetic expression. Overall, the study demonstrates that the lotus flower served as a mediatory symbol between the terrestrial and the divine realms, reinforcing an underlying conceptual unity amid the artistic diversity of the empire. https://rac.soore.ac.ir/article_735428.html The Battle of Ashura stands among the most consequential events in Shi’a history. In Iranian painting art-particularly contemporary art -it has received significant attention. Beyond performative arts such as Taazie (passion plays) and Naqqāli (epic storytelling), visual artists have engaged with symbols and colors, have taken steps to keep rituals alive and promote them through visual expression. Contemporary Iranian miniature painting (Negārgarī) has emerged as a highlight event for interpreting Ashura narratives. The Iranian Contemporary Miniature Biennale serves as a pivotal platform, systematically curating exemplary works nationwide every two years. This quantitative-qualitative study employs descriptive-analytical methods to examine Ashura-themed works across these different periods of biennale, addressing the central question: Which narrative aspects of Ashura dominate contemporary Iranian miniature depictions?Data was collected through archival research and field observation, with the statistical population comprising Ashura-themed works in different periods of the national miniature painting biennale. Findings reveal that contemporary miniature artists prioritize the depiction of sacred heroic figures, with ʿAbbās ibn ʿAlī (known as Hazrat-e Abolfazl) emerging as the most frequently represented person. His symbolic embodiment of chivalric sacrifice (futuwwat) accounts for the highest distribution of thematic content, underscoring his centrality in visual commemorations of Ashura. The works of the National Biennial of Iranian Painting show that during the different periods of the biennial, the representation of Ashura has evolved from descriptive narratives to symbolic expression, and artists have recreated the concepts of sacrifice and holiness in a connection between religious tradition and contemporary Iranian identity, relying on symbols such as horses, flags, green shawls, and avoiding direct portraits of the Imams.The National Painting Biennial is a cultural-artistic event that brings together painting artists from all over Iran every two years to exhibit their magnificent works after judging. This biennial began in 1370 and, considering the welcome received by painters from all over Iran until 1401, eleven sessions have been held with different approaches. According to the present study, the subject of which is Ashura in different periods of the National Painting Biennial, in total, in eleven periods, the paintings that have entered the National Painting Biennial with the above theme are 27 paintings, and by eliminating 3 repeated paintings, the exact number of paintings reaches 24 works.Considering the total number of paintings available in the National Painting Biennials, paintings with the theme of Ashura are divided into 7 sections: General narration of Ashura, Martyr, Imam Hussein (AS), Hazrat Abolfazl (AS), Hazrat Zaynab (SA), Hazrat Ali Asghar (AS), and Mr. Hur (AS). The largest distribution of Ashura paintings in the works of the National Biennial of Painting is about Hazrat Abbas (AS). The subject of Ali Asghar (AS) has received the most attention of painters with the second priority. Considering this point, the subject of Hazrat Abbas (AS) and Ali Asghar (AS) has had more importance for painters or has been selected among other cases due to the greater impact of these two subjects on the audience. Also, in the process of works over several years (1370-1401), it can be seen that the early works of the biennial mostly dealt with the general subject of the narration of Ashura and the martyr and the narration of the story in a visual way, and more elements are seen in the illustrated works, but in the later works, they often paid attention to the characters of Ashura and dealt with the concepts, and due to greater symbolism, fewer elements are seen in the paintings. Hazrat Abolfazl (AS), who performed the most brave deeds in the way of God and followed the Imam's command, is shown as a symbol of the personality of a brave and holy hero, and the largest number of paintings are dedicated to him. The smallest number of works of Ashura painting is also related to the subject of Mr. Al-Harr. The painting of Mr. Al-Harr is a new subject that the painter has also paid attention to.A study of the different periods of the National Biennial of Iranian Painting shows that most Ashura paintings use human figures. However, due to religious beliefs and the sanctity of depicting the faces of the infallible Imams (AS) in Islamic culture (except in coffeehouse paintings that depicted the faces of the Imams (AS) in full), most Ashura paintings refrain from depicting the faces of the Imams (AS). Of the animal elements, horses and birds are most commonly used in Ashura paintings. The horse, especially the winged one of Imam Hussein (AS), is a symbol of loyalty and courage, while birds (such as doves) are often symbols of freedom, the Holy Spirit, or divine messaging. Among inanimate elements, the flag, tent, and arrow are among the most commonly used symbols in Ashura paintings. The flag symbolizes resistance and perseverance, the tents represent the lives and families of the martyrs, and the arrows symbolize war and martyrdom. Also, plant elements such as the palm tree and natural elements such as rocks and rocks have been used in Ashura paintings. The palm tree symbolizes endurance and life, while rocks and rocks can represent hardships and obstacles on the path to truth. The representation of the Ashura event in contemporary art has evolved from narrative narratives to symbolic and conceptual expressions. By emphasizing figures such as Hazrat Abolfazl (AS) and Hazrat Ali Asghar (AS), using symbols such as horses, flags, green shawls, and avoiding direct portraits of the Imams (AS), painters have been able to recreate the concepts of sacrifice, holiness, and epic in an Iranian-Islamic format; which expresses the deep and lasting connection between the Shiite faith and beliefs of Muslims, the tradition of religious painting, and the cultural identity of today's Iran.